兵车行 The Chariot's Ride
车辚辚，马萧萧，行人弓箭各在腰。
耶娘妻子走相送，尘埃不见咸阳桥。(耶娘 一作：爷娘)
牵衣顿足拦道哭，哭声直上干云霄。
道旁过者问行人，行人但云点行频。
或从十五北防河，便至四十西营田。
去时里正与裹头，归来头白还戍边。
边庭流血成海水，武皇开边意未已。
君不闻汉家山东二百州，千村万落生荆杞。
纵有健妇把锄犁，禾生陇亩无东西。
况复秦兵耐苦战，被驱不异犬与鸡。
长者虽有问，役夫敢申恨？
且如今年冬，未休关西卒。
县官急索租，租税从何出？
信知生男恶，反是生女好。
生女犹得嫁比邻，生男埋没随百草。
君不见，青海头，古来白骨无人收。
新鬼烦冤旧鬼哭，天阴雨湿声啾啾！
Background
Following the Tianbao period (天宝), the Tang dynasty’s military conflicts with minority ethnic groups in the northwest and southwest became increasingly frequent. These years of unrelenting large-scale warfare not only inflicted severe devastation upon the minority ethnic groups along the border but also brought similar misfortune to the inhabitants of the central plains.
One interpretation of the poem suggests that it is a satire of Emperor Xuanzong’s military campaigns against the Tibetan Empire, as stated in Du Fu’s “Duyi.”《杜臆》 The annotation in “Duyi” explains, “Emperor Xuanzong indeed utilized his subjects to wage war against the Tibetan Empire during the Tianbao period.” “旧注谓明皇用兵吐蕃，民苦行役而作，是也。此当作于天宝中年。”
At the time, the Tang Dynasty was engaged in constant warfare against minority groups in the southwest. The “Zizhi Tongjian” records in volume 216:
"in April of the 10th year of the Tianbao period, Zhongtong (鲜于仲通), commander of the Jian Nan (剑南) region, suffered a major defeat in Lunan (泸南) while fighting against the southern state of Nanzhao.
Zhongtong led an army of 80,000 soldiers, 60,000 of whom perished, with only Zhongtong escaping. Yang Guozhong (杨国忠) concealed the defeat and lauded Zhongtong’s military achievements. He then recruited soldiers from the two capitals and northern regions to attack Nanzhao (南诏). However, when people learned that Yunnan (云南) was rife with malaria, they refused to fight, and 80-90% of the soldiers died before even entering battle.
Yang Guozhong (杨国忠) dispatched officials to forcibly conscript people into the army. This caused widespread sadness and resentment among the populace, with families weeping as their loved ones were sent off to war. The sound of their cries could be heard throughout the countryside. "
“天宝十载四月，剑南节度使鲜于仲通讨南诏蛮，大败于泸南。时仲通将兵八万，军大败，士卒死者六万人，仲通仅以身免。杨国忠掩其败状，仍叙其战功。制大募两京及河南北兵以击南诏。人闻云南多瘴疠，未战，士卒死者什八九，莫肯应募。杨国忠遣御史分道捕人，连枷送诣军所。于是行者愁怨，父母妻子送之，所在哭声振野。” - 《资治通鉴》卷二百一十六载
Another interpretation suggests that the poem satirizes Emperor Xuanzong’s military campaign against Nanzhao in 751 during the Tianbao period. At that time, Yang Guozhong wielded immense power and deceived the public about the military situation, inciting public outrage as recorded in Qian Qianyi’s “Qian Zhu Du Shi.” 见钱谦益《钱注杜诗》卷一
Whichever interpretation is true, the tone of the poem is clear.
Overview
This poem is a political satire that opposes Emperor Xuanzong’s (唐玄宗) policy of poverty and war. The entire poem employs a dialogue between a conscripted soldier and an elderly man to convey the people’s abhorrence of war and the suffering it inflicts. Despite such circumstances, local officials continue to impose arbitrary taxation and extortion, exacerbating the people’s suffering. It is one of the poet’s renowned works that demonstrates a deep understanding of the people’s plight and profound sympathy for them.
The poem is divided into two sections by the phrase "道旁过者问行人" “an elderly man on the roadside asks the marching soldier”:
The first depicts the heartrending scene of farewell in a narrative form; the second section conveys the conscripted soldier’s grievances through exposition.
Profound ideological content is embedded in the poem, utilizing the dialogue between the conscripted soldier and the elderly man to express the people’s hatred of war and expose Emperor Xuanzong’s long-standing policy of poverty and war, as well as the continuous wars that have wrought immense devastation upon the populace.
Emotions are constantly interweaved within its narrative, arranging events in a staggered yet orderly manner, skillfully employing transitional sentences and idioms to create a poignant artistic effect. The poet pioneered a new subject for yuefu poetry by writing about contemporary events, making a groundbreaking contribution to the new yuefu (乐府) movement that emerged during the mid-Tang Dynasty.
"行" is a genre of Yuefu folk songs. Du Fu's "The Chariot's Ride" does not follow the classic ancient theme, but is a new work inspired by the war. Using the form of this folk song, it reflects the hardships of people's lives in a more colloquial language.
The poem’s non-linear narrative order is well-coordinated and organized, with smooth transitions and orderly changes. The cacophonous and chaotic atmosphere of the first part, with people weeping and horses neighing amidst clouds of rolling dust, lays a perfect foundation for the emotional outpouring in the second part. The lengthy exposition in the second part further deepens the philosophical content depicted in the first part, mutually reinforcing each other.
Meanwhile, the development of the plot is closely intertwined with changes in sentence structure and sound, with sentence patterns and rhyme schemes constantly shifting, utilizing three-, five-, and seven-character lines to create a powerful expressive force within the poem.
For instance, the first two three-character sentences at the beginning are urgent and abrupt, producing a gripping effect. Later, eight five-character sentences are suddenly interspersed among long seven-character sentences, vividly portraying the suppressed anger and sorrow of the “pedestrian.”
In terms of rhyme, the poem has eight rhymes, with four level tones and four oblique tones alternating smoothly to enhance the poem’s rhythm.
Furthermore, the poem also employs transitional sentences and idiomatic phrases in its narrative, such as “Passers-by along the road asked the pedestrian, who replied only with a nod,” "道旁过者问行人，行人但云点行频。" and “Although the elder inquired, the laborer dared not express his grievances.” "长者虽有问，役夫敢申恨？"
The use of phrases such as “Have you not seen” and “Have you not heard” not only avoids prolixity and monotony but also repeatedly prompts and awakens readers, creating a poignant artistic effect.
The poet also utilizes the folk song’s link-word technique, such as “Tugging at clothes and stamping feet, blocking the path and weeping, the sound of crying rises straight up into the clouds,” "牵衣顿足拦道哭，哭声直上干云霄。" These techniques are strung together like a string of pearls, sonorous and harmonious, pleasing to the ear.
Finally, the poet employs colloquial language, such as “Ye Niang (mother and wife),” "耶娘妻子" and “Being driven away like dogs and chickens,” which are fresh and natural, as clear as speech. This is an exemplary instance of Du Fu’s use of colloquial language in his poetry. As the elders once said, “In songs and ballads, simplicity is more poignant.” "“语杂歌谣，最易感人，愈浅愈切。” The use of these folk song techniques imbues the poem with a lively and familiar appeal.
First Section
车辚辚，马萧萧，行人弓箭各在腰。
The chariots rattle, the horses neigh, As soldiers march forth with bows and arrows at their side.
耶娘妻子走相送，尘埃不见咸阳桥。
Fathers, mothers, wives, and children run to see them off, As the dust they raise blocks out the sky, obscuring even the Xianyang Bridge.
牵衣顿足拦道哭，哭声直上干云霄。
Some hold onto the soldiers' clothes, crying and wailing, Their voices reaching up to the heavens and into the clouds.
The poem begins sudden and objective. With bold and powerful brushstrokes, it presents a shocking farewell scene before the reader: war carts rumble, horses neigh, and a team of impoverished peasants who have been conscripted are clad in armor and armed with bows and arrows. Under the escort of officials, they are heading towards the front line.
The conscripts’ parents and wives frantically search for and call out to their loved ones in the crowd, tugging at their clothes and pounding their chests while exhorting and shouting. The dust kicked up by the carts and horses obscures the sky, even concealing the bridge that spans the Wei River northwest of Xianyang.
The cries of millions merge into a deafening roar that echoes in the clouds. “Wives and mothers go to see them off.” “耶娘妻子走相送” When a family’s main breadwinner and labor force is taken away, those left behind are mostly elderly, infirm, and children.
For a family, it is a disaster; how can they not accompany and see them off? A simple word “go”“走” contains the poet’s profound emotional color!
When loved ones are suddenly taken away by the military and hastily escorted to war, the relatives chasing after them experience a moment of life-and-death separation; how urgent and sorrowful it is! “Tugging at clothes, pounding chests, blocking the path, and weeping” “牵衣顿足拦道哭” - in one sentence, four consecutive actions convey the attachment, grief, anger, and despair of those bidding farewell.
Under the poet’s pen, dust fills the air, carts and horses flow like a river, dazzling the eyes; cries are everywhere, reaching the sky and deafening! Such descriptions provide readers with a powerful sensory experience, concentrating on the tragic separation of thousands of families; it is heart-wrenching.
Second Section
道旁过者问行人，行人但云点行频。
Passersby ask the soldiers what is happening, And they can only say that the government's conscription is too frequent.
或从十五北防河，便至四十西营田。
Some are sent at fifteen to guard north of the Yellow River, And even at forty must be dispatched to the west to farm the land.
去时里正与裹头，归来头白还戍边。
When they first leave for battle, they are not yet men, And their village head must wrap their turbans for them. When they return, their hair is already white, But they must still guard the border.
边庭流血成海水，武皇开边意未已。
The blood of frontier soldiers flows like the sea, But the emperor's desire knows no end.
Continuing on, starting from "道旁过者问行人," the poet employs the method of questioning to allow the involved parties, i.e., the drafted soldiers, to directly vent their emotions.
"The passer-by on the road" “道旁过者” refers to the poet himself. The tragic scene described above was witnessed firsthand by the poet, while the sorrowful words below were heard with his own ears.
This enhances the poem's sense of realism. "点行频" refers to the frequent conscription of soldiers and is the "poetic eye" of the entire poem.
It sharply points out the root cause of the separation of wives and children, the innocent sacrifice of the people, and the barrenness of the entire country's farmland. Then, with the example of a "traveler" who went to war at the age of fifteen and was still stationed on the border at the age of forty, the frequency of conscription is specifically described to demonstrate the situation's veracity and reliability.
"The blood of frontier soldiers flows like the sea, But the emperor's desire knows no end. " “边庭流血成海水，武皇开边意未已。” "The emperor" is an allusion to the Tang Dynasty's Emperor Xuanzong. Du Fu boldly directs the spearhead directly at the emperor, expressing the poet's uncontrollable anger and indignation from the depths of his heart.
Third Section
君不闻汉家山东二百州，千村万落生荆杞。
Have you not heard of the two hundred provinces east of Huashan, Where grass grows wild and fields lie barren in thousands of villages and camps?
纵有健妇把锄犁，禾生陇亩无东西。
Even with strong women working the fields with hoes and plows, The crops still yield little.
况复秦兵耐苦战，被驱不异犬与鸡。
How much more so for the soldiers of Guanzhong, Who fight on fiercely like chickens and dogs, sacrificing themselves on the battlefield.
The poet’s pen suddenly shifts as he opens another chapter. He leads with the three words “Have you not heard?” in a conversational tone, prompting the reader to shift their focus from the bloody battlefield to the vast inland territory.
The “Han Family” “汉家” mentioned in the poem is also an allusion to the Tang dynasty. The fertile fields east of Huashan, once dotted with villages and towns, are now desolate and abandoned, overrun with thorns and decay.
The poet’s imagination takes flight, connecting the present situation to the broader national landscape, expanding the scope of the poem and deepening its meaning.
Fourth Section
长者虽有问，役夫敢申恨？
Though the elders ask, the conscripts dare not speak of their grievances and resentment.
且如今年冬，未休关西卒。
It is like this winter, when conscription has yet to stop west of the Hangu Pass.
县官急索租，租税从何出？
The government urgently demands that the people pay taxes and rent, But where will they find the means to do so?
Suddenly, the poet employs several short and crisp five-character lines. These lines express the soldiers’ deep sadness and sorrow while highlighting their urgent desire to vent their grievances. Through the soldiers’ testimonies, the poet exposes the dual calamities of militarism and forced taxation imposed by the ruling class.
Beginning with “Though the elders may inquire,” “长者虽有问” the poet advances to another stage in the poem. “Elders” is a respectful term that soldiers use to address the poet. “Foot soldiers” refers to the soldiers themselves, while “county officials” alludes to the Tang dynasty.
The phrase “Elders” reveals the spiritual shackles imposed upon the soldiers by the ruling class, but their discontent eventually surfaces in the following lines. The soldiers dared not speak out in anger until they finally revealed their grievances, creating a contrast that depicts their struggles and fears with exquisite detail.
These lines describe current events, as a large number of young men were being conscripted due to the emperor’s persistent border expansion policy. The question “From where do taxes come?” “租税从何出？” echoes the earlier line “Thousands of villages and towns now grow thorns and brambles.” “千村万落生荆杞” This parallelism enhances the poem’s overall coherence and exposes deeper social realities.
Fifth Section
信知生男恶，反是生女好。
The people believe that having a son is a bad thing, And that having a daughter is better.
生女犹得嫁比邻，生男埋没随百草。
With a daughter, they can marry her off to a neighbor, But with a son, he can only die in battle and be buried in the wilderness.
君不见，青海头，古来白骨无人收。
Have you not seen the white bones of soldiers who died in battle, Unburied along the edge of Qinghai since ancient times?
新鬼烦冤旧鬼哭，天阴雨湿声啾啾！
New ghosts there carry grudges, and old ghosts cry out in pain, Their mournful cries never ceasing on cold, rainy days.
The poet continues with a lament: nowadays it is better to have a daughter than a son, as girls can still marry their neighbors while boys can only die on the battlefield. This is a heartfelt complaint.
The preference for sons over daughters is a common social psychology under the feudal system. However, due to the continuous wars and the large number of male deaths, people have reversed this societal mindset in these brutal conditions. This change reflects how severely people’s souls have been ravaged by the war.
Finally, the poet employs a mournful tone to describe the long-standing tragic reality: on the ancient battlefield of Qinghai, sand stretches endlessly, with bones exposed and a bleak wind blowing, accompanied by the mournful cries of ghosts.
Here, the despondant and mournful ghostly cries contrast with the loud and lively atmosphere at the beginning. This forms a stark contrast. At this point, the poet is content to end the poem and the guilt of the Tang Dynasty’s militarism exposed to the world.